Cloth sacks for feed started to be produced in the mid-19th century, following the development of industrial sewing machines that were capable of producing strong seams that did not burst open when the sacks were filled or being transported. During the latter half of the 19th century, these sacks were often made of linen or burlap. Later on, cotton became popular. At first the format of the sacks was based on the older system of regional barrel sizes used for a range of commodities. It was not until the 1940’s that sack sizes became nationally standardized.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries feedsacks were normally marked with the name of a mill or producer. Small farms required a few sacks per month, but bakers, chicken farmers and others could use hundreds. Sometimes the marked sacks were returned to the original grain firms, but more often the empty sacks were sold or given away to women to make into clothing (especially underwear) and household items, such as towels or the backing of bed quilts. The concept of ‘waste not want not’ was a key factor in the use of these textiles.

The importance of flour sacks in the early 20th century for the production of household items is reflected in the fact that many local agricultural fairs in both the U.S. and Canada awarded ‘Ladies prizes’ to women who produced items made out of flour sacks.

Embroidered flour sack from Canada, TRC 2017.0422. For more information, click on the illustration.First World War

But the story of feedsacks and their secondary use is not just confined to the printed sacks re-used in the USA. During the First World War (1914-1918), American and Canadian flour companies were producing printed flour sacks that were sent (with their contents) to The Netherlands (which was neutral) for distribution in war ravaged Belgium and beyond. Many of these sacks were later locally embroidered and sent back to America as souvenirs, ‘thank you’ gifts, to be sold in auctions to raise more money to buy flour to be sent to Europe. These sacks often had patriotic and hopeful messages in various languages.

Gingham girl flour

It was in the 1920’s, however, that manufacturers realised the potential of the cloth sack decoration to promote sales, by persuading the farmer’s wives to purchase specific brands. One of the first to do so was the George P. Plant Milling Company (in St. Louis, Missouri), which started in 1925 to produce a range of brick red gingham cloth sacks under the trade name of ‘Gingham Girl Flour’. Due to Gingham Girl’s popularity they went on to produce ‘Gingham Mother’, ‘Gingham Baby’ and ‘Gingham Queen’ in different colours.

The idea was patented in 1924, but it did not prevent other cloth and bag manufacturers from producing cotton bags with a variety of other attractive designs. By the late 1920’s, various companies, notably the Bemis Brothers (TN), Fulton Bag & Cotton Mills (GA) and Percy Kent of Buffalo (NY), were producing a range of designs and colours to attract (female) customers.

Domestic science institutes and feedsacks

Various schools and institutes in America were set up to help train women and girls in household skills, included the teaching how to use feedsacks. One such establishment was The Household Science Institute, which had offices in New York and Chicago. In the late 1920’s they sent out a monthly newsletter called Out of the Bag, which included tips for the use of feedsacks. One such newsletter, from April 1929, describes how such sacks could be used for the annual spring cleaning. The same company also put out one of the first of a series of helpful booklets, called Sewing with Cotton Bags (c. 1929), which had a wide range of suggestions for how sacks could be used by the busy and inventive housewife.

When Marilyn Monroe donned a burlap potato sack in 1952, she was making various statements about herself, her wardrobe and her ability to wear anything glamorously. But she was following in a long tradition that is found in many countries around the world, namely the wearing of sacks when almost nothing else is available.

Clothing made from old sacks has been used for centuries to provide basic garments at very low cost. During the Depression in North America, in the 1930’s, clothing made from sacks was an important source of garments for many families. But instead of it vanishing as the economic situation improved by the 1940’s, the wearing of sack clothing was regarded by many as a patriotic duty and in the 1950’s the garments were seen as fashionable items that were worn by men, women and children throughout the American continent. But it has to be admitted: these were not any old sacks, but they were especially printed with a wide range of decorative designs in a variety of colours and sizes.

But what exactly is a feedsack? They have various other names, including flour sacks, flour bags, cotton bags, commodity bags, as well as more poetically, ‘chicken linen’, ‘hen house linen’ and ‘pretties’. Essentially they are cotton sacks that are used to store items such as flour, beans, maize, rice and sugar, as well as feed for calves, chickens and pigs.

Regional and national companies sold these sacks, with their contents, to a generally male clientele of farmers. Once the message got through that the sacks themselves were just as interesting, if not more so, than the contents, the established custom of choosing the sacks on the basis of quality, contents and price totally changed. There are many contemporary comments about a farmer or his sons being given a piece of cloth and told to match it at the feed store!

Libelle, October 1948, No. 27, p. 20. TRC Library.

Libelle, October 1948, No. 27, p. 21. TRC Library.

Libelle and feedsacks

Just after the Second World War, the Dutch magazine Libelle (October 1948, No. 27, pp. 20-21) included an article called Zaklopen op z’n Amerikaans (“Sackraces the American way’). It told the story of decorative American feedsacks and how they were used to dress fashionable young women. The article also suggested that something similar could happen in The Netherlands. At the time, thanks to the horrendous shortages caused by the Second World War, many Dutch men, women and children were wearing clothing made from feedsacks, but not the deliberately decorated forms.

Gradually memories of simple and undecorated feedsack garments have passed into Dutch family tales and traditions. In America, the memory of how a decorated feedsack helped feed and clothe the continent is also fading, but the use of feedsacks may again become appealing, as the concept of sustainability has become well established in the lives of many people throughout the world.

For thousands of years, goods have been transported to and from Central Asia, connecting what is now China, India, Iran, the Middle East, Turkey and Europe. This is the story of the famous Silk Road. It connected people, cities and countries. Along this route, vast numbers of goods were moved, including textiles, clothing and jewellery. And it should be remembered that, some two thousand years ago, goods travelled in both directions. Greek textiles have been found in what is now China; Indian cottons were excavated in Roman period sites in Egypt, Chinese silks ended up in Austria and elsewhere, and Central Asian goods and people also moved in all directions.

Alim Khan (1880-1944), Emir of Bukhara, 1911. He is wearing a blue, silk kaftan with floral decoration, and a heavy, gold belt. Library of Congress.The last remark is important, since Central Asia was for more than a transit area. Central Asia, the hub of this vast mercantile exchange network, developed and expanded upon the production of a variety of items, including textiles and garments, and gave them their own unique technical twists and appearances.

And the Silk Road is not something that is only about the past. The modern One Belt One Road programme of the Chinese government will soon drastically change the appearance of Central Asia and once again intensify its contacts with East and West.

Jewellery, especially that worn by women, has long played an important role in Central Asian life. It is not only decorative, but it has both amuletic (against the evil eye) and talismanic (attracting positive) properties. In particular, silver is seen as having the power to reflect evil away from the wearer. Equally important, however, is the fact that it is the property of the woman herself and indicates her family’s social and economic status, while providing her with a source of funding should family circumstances change for the worse.

There have been some significant changes in the form of jewellery worn over the decades. At the beginning of the 20th century, for example, a Turkmen bride might wear up to five kilos of silver jewellery as a sign of her status and value. By the end of the 20th century, however, few women were still prepared to carry such a weight of jewellery. Another change is the move from silver to gold forms. Much of the gold jewellery, however, is not heavy as it is not massive gold, but a sheet form that comes from India and, more recently, China.

Two silver Turkmen bracelets. Iran, late 20th century. TRC 1999.0321a-b. For more information, click on the illustration.The main types of traditional jewellery

The head is regarded as the most important and visible part of the human body, so it is not surprising that considerable attention was and is paid in Central Asia to the various forms of jewellery worn on the head. These include diadems, which are especially large among the Turkmen, and very delicate among the Tajik and Uzbek, to linked bands that are hung horizontally along the sides of the head, as well as hanging down just in front of the ears. Forehead jewellery consists of linked bands, often with small pendants that reach just above the eyes. Earrings and nose rings also abound and come in many different forms and sizes. Large plaques, often of a heart shape, are made for hanging down the back of the head and over a woman’s plaited hair. They are regarded as having an amuletic property, as well as decorating this part of the wearer’s body.

Around the neck is worn a variety of different types of necklaces, from amuletic forms made of spices, notably cloves, to large silver plaques embellished with semi-precious stones, notably carnelian (amulet), turquoise (talisman) and lapis lazuli (talisman). Armbands, bracelets and finger rings also play an important role in the jewellery wardrobe and come in many forms. In particular, armbands and bracelets are often worn in pairs. With respect to the finger rings, each finger has a different type of ring. Around the waist, a number of different types of belts are worn, depending on where the woman comes from and the status of the family. Poorer women or those wearing ‘daily’ forms may opt for a cloth sash to keep their dresses and coats in place.

A pair of decorative metal bands for embellishing a Turkmen woman's headdress. TRC 1999.0191. For more information, click on the illustration.In contrast to the jewellery worn by women, men’s jewellery is traditionally limited, in keeping with the general Islamic ban on the wearing of silks and gold jewellery by men. Men’s accessories mainly come in the form of silver rings, especially for a man who has been on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and in a traditional setting, namely swords, daggers and firearms with elaborate stocks, but also leather and silver satchels. Often more time and money was spent on a man’s horse and its decoration, than on the wearer himself, because a horse and its equipment were a very public announcement of the owner’s status.

A variety of woven textiles have been produced in Central Asia, ranging from simple tabby weaves made on ground looms, to sophisticated brocades and velvets produced on variations of drawstring looms. In addition, carpet weaving and tablet weaving are practiced in some parts of Central Asia.

Tabby and twill weaves

Afghanistan, for example, is known for the production of tabby weave textiles in a variety of forms, including even weave, (warp-) faced weaves, and twill weaves (associated with men’s blankets). These are used for both undecorated and decorated textiles, with stripes being especially popular. Green and purple striped cloth, for example, has been traditionally woven in the north of Afghanistan for the production of the long-sleeved coats known as chapans, which were made famous by the former president of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai. Other regions also produced these sort of textiles, including Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

Uzbek woman's brocaded dress in orange silk. TRC 2011.0470. For further information, click on the illustration.Brocade weaves

Uzbekistan, especially the cities of Bokhara and Samarkand, were until comparatively recently major producers of a wide range of brocade textiles, especially in silk, which were used for garments such as men and women’s coats, robes and dresses, as well as for soft furnishings of various types.

Velvet weaves

Uzbekistan has also long been famous for the production of silk velvet textiles that were used for the garments worn by elite men and women, as well as for cushions, covers, and wall-hangings for decorating palaces, homes and tents. Sometimes silk velvets were decorated using an ikat technique, creating a very rich and decorative textile that was very expensive.

Tablet weaving

Card or tablet weaving also occurs in some parts of Central Asia, most notably in Uzbekistan, where narrow bands are sewn onto the edges of some caps, as well as being used for the straps of bags, etc.

Bicycle or motor bike saddle covering made from a freshly woven carpet, decorated with fringes. Kabul, Afghanistan, late 20th century. TRC 2016.1864. For more information click on the illustration.Pile carpets

Central Asia is also known for the production of pile carpets of many different types, colours and designs. Some of these carpets now sell for hundreds of thousands of euros. But there is also another form of carpet that is popular, especially in Afghanistan, namely bike carpets. These are small, woven to shape covers for bicycle and motorbike saddles. They come in a variety of sizes, but are generally made from wool with beaded tassels, and have similarly woven designs to their larger ‘cousins’.

A range of painted and printed textiles have been used in Central Asia for centuries. These include hand painted hunting scenes as well as block printed and roller printed textiles produced locally or imported from neighbouring countries.

Painted

An ancient method of decorating textiles was to paint a design on them, either with fingers, sticks or brushes. By the 20th century, few textiles were being decorated in this manner, but one of the most intriguing are the hunting cloths associated with northern Afghanistan. These cloths (locally called chireh) come in various forms, but the most characteristic are the painted hoods that represent an animal (often a leopard) and squares of material with the representations of the various creatures that used to be hunted in the region. These include birds (often partridges) and animals. These painted textiles were designed to make the hunter one with his pray and the surrounding environment.

Woman's head covering from Uzbekistan, with printed and resist-dyed decoration. Late 20th century. TRC 2016.1836. For more information, click on the illustration.Printed

Until the 19th century, many of the printed textiles used in Central Asia were either locally produced or imported from India or Iran. In all cases these were made using wooden blocks. In the 19th century, the situation changed considerably as more and more imported textiles from Europe appeared on the market and these were made by block printing, screen printing and later by roller printing machines.

By the early 20th century, the dominant exporter of printed textiles to Central Asia was Russia and this country continued to satisfy the need for printed textiles until the beginning of the 21st century. Russian textiles have a characteristic red background (although there are some exceptions) with large stylised floral motifs or geometric designs. Sometimes Soviet period propaganda, such as the hammer and sickle or red stars, also appear on the printed textiles.

Ikat is a dyeing technique that creates a patterned textile by tightly binding individual yarns (warp, weft or both) or bundles of yarns. The threads are then dyed (as a generalization the red comes from saffron, blacks from pomegranate skins, red from cochineal insects, while blues come from indigo). Where there is a binding the dye is ‘resisted’ and keeps the underlying or original colour.

The process of binding and unbinding may be repeated several times to create multiple colours along a thread or bundle of threads, in a specific order. The threads are then woven in such a way that the different colours create a pattern and motifs. Three or more colours, for example, are often used to create intricate patterns that often range from white to a dark blue or purple colour.

In the past, the more luxurious ikat cloths were made of silk. As a generalisation, during the 19th and early 20th centuries women in Central Asia were responsible for looking after the silk moths and caterpillars, as well as the reeling of silk thread, while men did the binding, dyeing and weaving of the cloth.

Uzbekistan and in particular the cities of Bokhara and Samarkand, as well as the Ferghana Valley, were famous for the production of ikats, localled called abr-bandi (‘cloud tying’) and depictions of men wearing what appear to be ikat garments date back to at least the 18th century. It would appear that the 19th century was a peak period for the production of complicated and colourful silk ikats, and there would appear to be a decline since then. During the Soviet period the production of ikats was encouraged, but this was done in factory situations where the designs, production, materials (often synthetics), and so forth could be tightly controlled.

Woman with Uzbek ikat coat, standing outside of a yurt, early 20th century. Digitally enhanced photograph. Library of Congress.Use of ikats

The most common use for ikats in Central Asia was for the clothing of both men and women. The wearing of silk ikat was regarded as a status symbol, so people would wear multiple layers of robes (up to ten garments in some cases) in order to indicate the wearer’s position and wealth. Ikats were also used at weddings (especially as dowry gifts) and for wrapping new born babies, as well as for soft furnishings such as prayer rugs and wall hangings.

With respect to trade, Central Asia played an important role in the so-called Silk Road and ikats were prestigious items that were traded in both directions. In addition, ikat robes were an important part of the honour system called khilat, whereby a high ranking man or woman would give a lesser person an item of clothing as a gift.

During the 1960’s and 70’s, some young people in the West were known for wearing Afghan coats made from a fleece decorated with embroidery, together with knitted socks. Most of the socks were knitted in Afghanistan, in particular by the Hazaras, and were worn by men in the wintertime. The history of knitting in Central Asia and Afghanistan is still not clear, but there is a long tradition of knitting in neighbouring Iran. What is apparent is that the various techniques were quickly adopted and adapted to local tastes in patterns and colours.

Felted caps

In addition to the knitted socks mentioned above there are also a few examples of knitted and felted textiles in Central Asia. One such example is the knitted and felted cap worn by some Turkmen men in northern Iran and southern Turkmenistan. These are made from a brown woollen yarn that is loosely knitted (stocking stitch) into the desired shape and then felted with a comb. The felting provides extra warmth with little extra weight.

Western fashions have also had an influence on the range of knitted items worn in Central Asia. Jumpers, cardigans, waistcoats, shawls and so forth are locally knitted and used.

Two products that derive from sheep that have played an essential role in many people’s lives in Central Asia are fleece and felt. Fleece is the skin of a sheep that still has the wool in place (unlike leather where it has been deliberately removed). Felt is made from the wool that is sheared from a (living) animal and then rolled, rubbed and processed until a thick, matted sheet is created.

Fleece

Fleece skin clothing and goods have played an important role in Central Asia for a very long time, notably in the form of headgear and coats. The iconic, embroidered fleece skin coats of the 1960’s and 1970’s that were popular throughout the West, for example, were based on Afghan originals, although many were hastily produced in Turkey to satisfy the needs of Western fashion. Among Afghan and Turkmen men, various forms of headgear made of sheep skin have long been popular. Central Asians, and especially wealthy men, sometimes wear long narrow caps made out of astrakhan, which is the fleece of an unborn or just born lamb. As such, true astrakhan is very expensive and there are many copies. The former president of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, wore such a cap. A much cheaper form of headgear, but no less memorable, is the telpek of the Turkmen, which is a large deep cap made of a flat top and a wide band of fleece. The white versions are regarded as belonging to the more elite men (as it gets dirty much more quickly and needs to be cleaned and replaced on a more regular basis).

Felt panel for a yurt, Kazakhstan, 1970s. TRC 2017.3044. For further information, click on the illustration.Felt

Felt has played an important role in the daily lives of many people in Central Asia for thousands of years. It is made using locally produced wool from hardy sheep (that sometimes look like goats). Yurts (the characteristic round tent-like structures) were and are important in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan as well as Uzbekistan. They remain an important form of shelter and the outside and inside of such tents are normally covered with thick sheets of felt. The sheets are often decorated either during the felting process, or afterwards with embroidery and/or large, cotton appliqués that are sewn onto the felt itself. A related form are the smaller, rectangular felt wall and floor coverings that are decorated in a similar manner to the large tent pieces, namely with coloured felt, embroidery or applied cloth decoration.

In southern Afghanistan, among the nomadic Pashtuns, felt was used for a specific type of coat worn by men called a kosai, which has long sleeves. These coats were associated with shepherds and they formed a thick and warm tent in which the wearer could sleep at night while tending his flocks. These coats were often embroidered. Felt socks are worn in some parts of Central Asia during the winter months. These are made from a single piece of felt that is moulded by hand into shape. They are normally worn inside leather boots. In both Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan there has long been a tradition of men wearing tall felt hats that are decorated with embroidery. The examples worn at the beginning of the 21st century still have some embroidery, but they represent a considerably simpler form than those worn in the late 19th century.

A wide range of decorative needlework styles, techniques, patterns and end uses exist in Central Asia. These range from very small beaded watch pockets to large, embroidered wall hangings called suzanis. Some of these pieces are used to decorate the body, while others are used in palaces, houses and tents.

Embroidery

One of the most popular forms of decorative needlework in Central Asia is embroidery. There are many different forms, including counted thread and free-style work. The counted thread forms include 

Pashtun boy's embroidered, woollen jacket. Afghanistan, late 20th century. TRC 2008.0297. For more information, click on illustration.

the famous white work of Kandahar (Afghanistan), known as khamak, which uses satin stitch and pulled thread work, and also the cross stitch embroideries of the Uzbeks. These are used to decorate everything, from bags, caps to V-shaped bands used to hold folded up bedding in place in a tent (yurt) or household cupboard. Other forms of embroidery include the gold and silver thread work that is associated with urban centres in Uzbekistan, especially Bokhara and Samarkand. This form includes the use of a metal strip (plate), or working a thread over a card template, as well as a mixture of embroidery and applied metal forms (bracteates).

Gold work is especially popular for men and women’s headgear. It shows the wealth, patience and creativity of the wearer. Sometimes they are worked with silk (rayon) threads in various colours to help bring out the designs.

Embroidered bag for inside an Uzbek yurt. Mid-20th century. TRC 2016.1821. For more information, click on the illustration.A wide range of designs are used for embroidery in Central Asia. Often the same or a comparable design may be used by two different groups, such as a stylised goat that is found in both Turkmen and Uzbek designs. Many embroidery patterns have symbolic meanings, such as the stylised goats, or more in particular the ram’s horns, that represent good luck and fertility. Sometimes a design seems the same at first glance, but in the case of the Uzbek embroidered caps, for example, the design of a cockerel looks very similar to the buteh or paisley motif.

Beading

Beading is used mainly in Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for the decoration of garments and household objects. White glass beads are especially popular, as these are seen as having amuletic properties. The beads were originally locally made, but by the 19th century more and more Italian (especially Venetian) beads were being used. By the mid-20th century, however, cheaper Indian beads were introduced, and by the end of the 20th century Czech and Chinese glass beads, which are more even in size, were widespread. Various beading techniques are associated with Central Asia, including weaving bands on a small loom, hand sewing them onto canvas, or creating a trellis work in the hand by threading beads together.