Examples of appliqué have been recorded from various archaeological sites throughout Egypt. Most notably, appliqués were found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun (d. 1323 BC). These pieces include a panel, probably for the front of a tunic (see illustration), the ‘king's wings,’ as well as a small embroidered leopard skin in linen, which was used by the king when he was carrying out his role as a priest.

All of the appliqués from the tomb of Tutankhamun were made from either red or blue linen cloth on either a white or dark red ground. There is no direct evidence to show exactly how all the appliqués were made, but at least two techniques could be identified. The first uses rolls of very fine even weave linen, which were sewn down directly onto the ground material. This technique is seen on a child’s tunic worn by the young king and was used for an elaborate, decorative appliqué collar that was made in imitation of a beaded version.

Detail of an appliqué textile from the tomb of Tutankhamun, 14th century BC. Photograph by Nino Monastra.A second technique used a piece of material that was cut out and then trimmed, nicked and tucked under in order to create the desired shape. This process is still used by Egyptian appliqué makers in Cairo to the present day. This form was probably used for the child’s leopard skin from the Tutankhamun’s tomb, which has applied linen roundels underneath five-pointed stars (the so-called night stars) and on top of the falcon's feathers. The appliqué falcon and vultures decorating the ‘king’s wings’ and the design on the tunic panel (see illustration) were also made with this technique

Appliqué is a technique whereby one or more textiles are sewn onto a ground material, usually of cloth, but leather may also be found. The cloth appliqués are made by drawing out a basic design on the ground material. Separate coloured cloth is cut out to the approximate shape and then, using a needle, its edges are tucked under and sewn down onto the ground.

There are two types of appliqué associated with Egyptian objects. Firstly there is positive, or ‘real’ appliqué, whereby a piece of cloth is sewn down onto another piece of cloth. Usually the edges of the applied cloth are tucked under to create a neat edge. The second form is called inlay appliqué (also known simply as inlay, and inlay patchwork), whereby an identical pattern is cut out in two pieces of differently coloured cloth and the ‘other’ pattern is sewn into the first piece of cloth, so creating a design that appears on both sides of the material. Often a cord was sewn around the pattern to hide the join between the ground material and the inlaid pattern. This particular form of appliqué is no longer widely used, but was especially popular during the medieval period.

In general, the production of this decorative technique was and remains the preserve of male embroiderers, but changes started to occur in the late twentieth century as more women and girls were taking up this profession, but they work from home rather than in public.

Embroidered postcards were popular in Europe from the early 1900's until the 1950's. Many of these were made in France. The cards  were decorated with a wide variety of designs and messages worked in floss silk in various colours. It has been suggested that some ten million embroidered cards were produced.

This digital exhibition focuses on the embroidered postcards that were produced during and just after the First World War. Comparable cards were also produced in printed or woven forms, but the embroidered cards have become the most appealing.

The cards were made with machines that imitated hand embroidery, and they were often provided with embroidered texts with a patriotic, romantic or religious message. They were sent home by the officers and soldiers that lived and fought in the trenches of northern France. They were addressed to parents, brothers, sisters, wives and girl-friends. Texts were embroidered in the diverse languages of the Allied forces, but comparable cards with German texts were also produced, and sent home from the opposite side of the front. Some of the cards in the collection of the TRC still include the names and addresses of the people they were sent to, and sometimes even with a longer hand written text in pencil on the back. 

Embroidered postcard from World War One, with the flags of the Allied forces, from left to right those of Russia, Italy, Britain, France and Belgium (TRC 2015.0448). Click illustration for TRC catalogue entry.

The cards that are discussed in this digital exhibition and that are shown in the picture gallery, are all housed in the collection of the TRC in Leiden. They provide a very different glimpse of life in the trenches, a glimpse that the soldiers perhaps intentionally presented to their loved ones so not to worry them.  It was a glimpse that provided a somewhat fanciful and sentimental impression of the war, very different from the harsh circumstances, the cold, the dampness, the dangers and the boredom, of life in the trenches.

Embroidered silk postcards were especially favoured during and just after the First World War (1914-1918).

The range of embroidered designs was varied and included obviously military subjects, such as the flags of the Allies (notably Belgium, Britain, Croatia, France, Italy, Portugal, Russia, and the USA), names of regiments, figures of famous generals, and more public subjects, such as Christmas, New Year and birthdays.

Embroidered postcard from the First World War, with the flags of the Allies depicted on the feathers of a peacock (TRC 2015.0434). Click illustration for TRC catalogue entry.In addition, many cards carried illustrations of butterflies and flowers, as gentler, more sympathetic images. Many of the cards were embroidered with messages, varying from patriotic slogans to more sentimental expressions, such as illustrated below.

There are also postcards celebrating the end of the war. One postcard, again with the Allied flags, actually refers to the occupation of Cologne and the German Rhineland. The first British troops entered this German city on 3rd December 1918, barely three weeks after the cessation of hostilities on 11th November 1918. The British Army of the Rhine would remain in Germany until 1929, with their headquarters in Cologne.

 Embroidered postcard with the flags of the Allied nations during the First World War, celebrating the occupation of the German city of Cologne, first entered by Allied troops in early December 1919 (TRC 2017.2571). Click illustration for TRC catalogue entry.

Based on surviving examples, it is clear that strips (in domestic machine production) or very broad sheets (in factory production), both of organza cloth, were being embroidered with series of identical designs. Using hand-embroidery machines it was possible to produce hundreds of images on a sheet in one go.

Postcard embroidered with a floral motif and the text "To my dear mother", worked with a Schiffli embroidery machine (TRC 2015.0432). Click illustration for TRC catalogue entry.

Once embroidered, the strips/sheets were cut up and the individual images were stuck into an embossed card frame. They were then sold to the public, especially the officers and soldiers, at a relatively high price.

The companies making and selling these cards could well have made a considerable profit. Perhaps this is the real reason behind the stories of poor refugee women working all hours to hand embroider these cards in order to feed their desperate families. 

Once it had been established that this form of postcard was very popular, and lucrative for producers and sellers, several companies started producing these cards using truly mechanical embroidery machines, which did not imitate hand embroidery.

In doing so, some companies used a Schiffli embroidery machine, which creates running and satin stitches (this machine uses a lock stitch with two threads, one on the front and one on the back of the ground material) or a Cornely embroidery machine (for chain stitched motifs), but these are not as well made as those produced on the hand-embroidery machine.

The designs and texts for the cards were worked in series with colourful, free style embroidery on silk gauze panels. The individual embroideries were cut out and stuck to a card frame that was embossed with a decorative edging.

For the embroidery itself, a wide range of stitches were used. These included the back stitch, basket weave stitch, individual cross stitches, herringbone stitch, reverse herringbone stitch (in order to create a shadow work effect), double running stitch (also known as the Holbein stitch), satin stitch, stem stitch, as well as various composite stitches.

A set of 25 images that were pre-embroidered by machine. The images are ready to be cut out and glued onto a card ground. The main text on the card reads: "Peace 1919" (TRC 2015.0421). Click illustration for TRC catalogue entry.In the past, various questions have been raised about these cards, especially as to how the cards were decorated, and by whom. Several different answers were given, the most popular and persistent (and sentimental) was the one that said that the images were hand embroidered by Belgian and French women who had been afflicted by the war.

But this explanation is not acceptable. Would these women and girls have really been able to hand embroider tens of thousands of cards? An important detail in this respect is that none of the individual postcards so far examined show any indication of a drawn or printed design that would have been essential if the embroideries were being made by hand. In addition, large sheets have been preserved (see the illustration) with series of comparable designs, ready to be glued onto the cardboard cards.

Detail of postcard TRC 2015.0448, showing various embroidery stitches, including the cross stitch, satin stitch and stem stitch. For more information, click on the illustration.The large sheets and the lack of drawn or printed designs, and the sheer number of embroidered cards, indicates that the cards were machine made, but this brings us to the next question, which type of machine was used?

The TRC holds some unique garments from Afghanistan, which were worn on special occasions, such as when playing the game of Buzkashi (literally “goat grabbing”), at the so-called Zur-Khana ('House of Strength'), for the Pashtun Atan dance, and for hunting.

 Buzkashi is a traditional Central Asian sport played by men on horseback. In Afghanistan it is especially popular in the north of the country. The aim is for the riders to grab the carcass of a headless goat or calf from the ground while riding a horse. A ‘goal’ is scored when the carcass is slung across a goal line, into a target circle or a vat. Games can last several days. The competition is generally very rough as riders try to make each other’s horses trip in order to thwart scoring attempts. Riders wear heavy padded clothing and head coverings in order to protect themselves from the other players’ whips and boots.

"Cheif [sic] wrestler at Kabul." Water colour by Godfrey Thomas Vigne 1835-1838. Please note the embroidered pair of trousers.

The Zur-Khana is an ancient tradition that is still very popular in neighbouring Iran, but in the past was also popular among the Tajiks and other Persian speaking groups in Afghanistan. Basically it is a ritualised form of working out, using various tools, such as a club and a bow. Participants wear special clothing, and the TRC is fortunate in having one of the characteristic half-long trousers in its collection.

Detail of a boy's tunic for the Atan dance, Kandahar, 2010 (TRC 2010.0532b). For more information, click on the illustration.

The Atan dance is performed by Pashtun men and boys; they dance around in a circle, often throwing their heads with their long locks of hair wildly around, and moving faster and faster. The TRC collection includes a boy's outfit from Kandahar for the Atan dance, but also a pair of man's dancing shoes from Kabul.

Clubs (in Persian called 'mil') used in a modern zurkhaneh in Iran (TRC 2017.3043a b). For more informaation, click on the illustration.The TRC also holds two pieces of cloth that were used to 'hide' the hunter while chasing his prey. Both derive from western Afghanistan. One is in the shape of an animal, the other is decorated with painted representations of wild animals.

And perhaps not to be classed as pastime, riding a bicyle is also a way of expressing one's taste by decorating the bike with textiles. The TRC collection includes a number of saddle cloths from Afghanistan that are made of decorative carpet woven to shape.

Atan dance, from the frontispiece of Vol. II of Lt. Arthur Conolly's 'Journey to the North of India through Russia, Persia and Afghanistan,' London 1834.Finally, many Afghan men like to consume tobacco snuff, called naswar, which they put in their mouths under the lower lip or behind their cheeks. Naswar, which is very popular in this part of the world, is a mixture of powdered tobacco and water, lime or juniper. In Afghanistan, naswar is often contained in small gourds that may be decorated with incisions or paintings. The gourd is stopped with a plug of leather.

The guests at an Afghan wedding tend to wear new clothing with traditional forms. The female guests wear all their finery and jewels. Brides traditionally wear red or green clothing, although many modern brides wear white dresses based on Western fashions. The colour of the decorative braid along the hem of the bride's trousers corresponds to the braids on the dress and the head covering.

Brides and grooms often change clothing several times during the wedding day, and a white Western gown for the bride is easily swapped for a traditional ethnic outfit.

In Kabul and other Afghan cities the main celebrations take place in large wedding halls, full of glitter, where sometimes more than a thousand guests are entertained; but men and women are sitting in separate rooms!

“Marriage party of poorer class – bridegroom and bride followed by girl carrying the bride’s clothes” From: Frank A. Martin, Under the Absolute Amir of Afghanistan, ……, 1907, opp. p. 96.

There are few garments that have become global icons and are recognized throughout the world. The Scottish kilt is one, and so are the Japanese kimono and the Native American headband with feather(s). During the period of the Taliban in Afghanistan (1996-2001) the Afghan chadari, or burqa as it is also known, has also become a global icon. For many in the non-Muslim world the chadari is a symbol of the oppression of women and their rights, a view that became even more widely voiced after the tragic events of 9/11. For others it is a romantic garment that wafts in the air as the wearer walks; a colourful, visual device used to great effect by the Iranian film maker, Mosen Makhmalbaf, in Kandahar (2001).

The chadari/burqa afforded many women protection from the prying eyes of men. At the same time the chadari gave some women the opportunity to live a secret life well away from family, friends and neighbours, as is attested to by a Persian saying from the early nineteenth century: "A Caubul wife in Boorka-cover, was never known without a lover." The difference came in the late twentieth century, when Afghan urban women were forced, rather than required by tradition, to wear these garments by the Taliban on the grounds that it was an Islamic requirement: a view that was not shared by all Afghan men and women. The penalty inflicted by the Taliban on a woman who was not totally covered in a chadari could range from a beating to death.

Muslim women in what is now Pakistan and northern India have being wearing this style of garment for over four hundred years, while a closely related version of it has been worn in Afghanistan for about two hundred years. These garments were worn because of a long-standing local custom for Muslim women to be totally covered when in public. Not to wear such a covering was seen as indicating a woman’s (and thus her family’s) lack of respectability, honour and social status.

Afghan woman's chadari, worn at a fashion show in Kabul, 2006. The chadari now is housed in the TRC collection (TRC 2006.0261). For more information, click the illustration.The two names, chadari and burqa, have been used for this style of garment for a long time and the name burqa is probably the older of the two. Basically, burqa is the Pakistani term, while chadari is used in Afghanistan for a closely related garment. However, most Westerners refer to it as a burqa for both forms. In reality a burqa from Pakistan consists of a cap, a cape section (body covering) that incorporates an eye grid, and a separate panel lower down at the front. The cap, the face veil section and the panel are usually decorated with embroidery. The Pakistani burqa does not have the tight, pressed pleats of the Afghan chadari. Instead, the ‘pleats’ or rather folds of this body covering are normally made by gathering the excess material of the chador (Persian for 'tent'; it is the name for the large sheet which is thrown down the head covering the body, but not the face) on a draw thread, and then sewing the material to the cap. The folds are created by working several rows of running stitches or by smocking the cloth, so creating a honeycomb effect.

The Afghan chadari consists of a cap, body covering and a separate face veil panel. In contrast to the (Pakistani) burqa described above, the panel with the eye grid is attached to the cap and there is no separate, inserted panel lower down. Around the upper part of the chador there are hundreds of narrow pleats that are gathered together and then sewn onto the cap. It is these pleats that give the Afghan garment its voluminous nature. The cap and panel are normally decorated with embroidery. It is this type of chadari that has become a global icon and (in)famous throughout the world.

Afghanistan is surrounded by many different ethnic groups and cultures and it is not surprising therefore that the materials, designs and colours used by the Afghan people for their embroidery reflect the central and important location of their country in Asia. Almost each ethic group inside Afghanistan has its own specific way of living, which is often reflected in their traditional embroidery.

In general the production of embroidery is carried out by girls and women at home. By the end of the twentieth century there also was a significant number of men carrying out embroidery, but this was usually machine embroidery produced in tailor’s workshops.

Embroidery is used in Afghanistan to decorate a wide range of objects. It is used for house decorations (table cloths, mats, towels, curtains and so forth), for animal trappings (notably the decorative blankets for horses), as well as for the clothing of both men and women. In general, women’s clothing tends to be more elaborately and colourfully embroidered than that of men.

Example of Kandahari whitework embroidery (khamak), Afghanistan, 1950s-1970s (TRC 2016.1792). For more information, click the illustration.Some of the most famous embroidery for men, for example, comes from Kandahar. This is the famous whitework embroidery. It is locally known as khamak and is worked in satin stitch on a fine cotton or white silk background. The satin stitch is traditionally worked from the reverse side of the material, and great care is taken to ensure that the front and back of the embroidery look alike. Comparable forms of embroidery are known from Herat, in the west of the country, and from among the Nuristanis, east of the capital Kabul. This form of embroidery is comparable to the chikan work from northern India (especially from the city of Lucknow).

One of the most widespread uses of embroidery is for the small skullcaps worn by men, women and children. Each group has its own style of cap and form of decoration, with many variations, designs and colours that can be related to different villages, gender, and so forth.

A range of different types of silk, cotton and wool yarns are used for embroidery on whatever fabrics are available. Metallic threads, spangles, sequins, mirrors and metallic braids are incorporated into the designs.

“The Ameer of Afghanistan at home: Life in His Majesty’s harem” The Graphic, 26th November 1904, p. 697.In addition, beads and large mirrors are used for Pashtun women’s dresses, while beads, coins and shells are often found on the dresses worn by nomadic women. Pashtun and Baluchi women also include small mirrors (shisha) in their works; an idea that originates in northern India.

Life in the harem of the Afghan Amir, around 1900, is described as follows (see illustration):  “The harem of the Ameer of Afghanistan is not in the least like the pictures one is accustomed to see. The ladies are never seen lounging about as depicted on the stage. One the other hand, they vie with each other in striving to produce the best work in knitting, embroidering, in silk and wool, and in their own beautiful fine stitching. The Queen of the Harem, who is also the favourite wife of the Ameer, often may be seen making her children’s clothes with her sewing machine, whilst one of the ladies of the court reads to her.”

A relatively limited number of stitches are used and these are closely related to the various ethnic groups. Some of the main forms are: blanket stitch, chain stitch, cross stitch, herringbone stitch, Holbein stitch, ladder stitch, long and short stitch, Roumanian couching, satin stitch, and slanting blanket stitch. Some of these stitches are used to cover large areas of cloth quickly with bold, floral designs, while others are used to create intricate, geometric patterns.

Embroidered panel for a woman's dress, Afghanistan, 1950s-1970s (TRC 2016.1771). For more information, click on the illustration.Afghan embroidery offers a great variety of motifs and designs. Each region and group has its own particular range of motifs, such as the sun and stars; geometric shapes (circles, squares, triangles, rosettes; Greek fret patterns); foliage based motifs such as almond leaves, melon stalks, pomegranates, as well as flowers such as tulips and pimento blossoms, which represent fertility.

Stylised animal elements, such as ram's horns and ‘lions tails’ also occur. Sometimes objects such as amulets and even teapots are included. In some areas embroideries include figurative motifs such as animals, birds and very occasionally human beings.